Nitric Oxide and Immune responses: part 1

Curator/Reporter Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS

Based on: A review by Wink et al., 2011

This is the first part of a two part post

Nitric oxide (NO), reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) perform dual roles as immunotoxins and immunomodulators. An incoming immune signal initiates NO and ROS production both for tackling the pathogens and modulating the downstream immune response via complex signaling pathways. The complexity of these interactions is a reflection of involvement of redox chemistry in biological setting (fig. 1)

Fig 1. Image credit: (Wink et al., 2011)

Previous studies have highlighted the role of NO in immunity. It was shown that macrophages released a substance that had antitumor and antipathogen activity and required arginine for its production (Hibbs et al., 1987, 1988). Hibbs and coworkers further strengthened the connection between immunity and NO by demonstrating that IL2 mediated immune activation increased NO levels in patients and promoted tumor eradication in mice (Hibbs et al., 1992; Yim et al., 1995).

In 1980s a number of authors showed the direct evidence that macrophages made nitrite, nitrates and nitrosamines. It was also shown that NO generated by macrophages could kill leukemia cells (Stuehr and Nathan, 1989). Collectively these studies along with others demonstrated the important role NO plays in immunity and lay the path for further research in understanding the role of redox molecules in immunity.

NO is produced by different forms of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes such as eNOS (endothelial), iNOS (inducible) and nNOS (neuronal). The constitutive forms of eNOS generally produce NO in short bursts and in calcium dependent manner. The inducible form produces NO for longer durations and is calcium independent. In immunity, iNOS plays a vital role. NO production by iNOS can occur over a wide range of concentrations from as little as nM to as much as µM. This wide range of NO concentrations provide iNOS with a unique flexibility to be functionally effective in various conditions and micro-environements and thus provide different temporal and concentration profiles of NO, that can be highly efficient in dealing with immune challenges.

Redox reactions in immune responses

NO/RNS and ROS are two categories of molecules that bring about immune regulation and 'killing' of pathogens. These molecules can perform independently or in combination with each other. NO reacts directly with transition metals in heme or cobalamine, with non-heme iron, or with reactive radicals (Wink and Mitchell, 1998). The last reactivity also imparts it a powerful antioxidant capability. NO can thus act directly as a powerful antioxidant and prevent injury initiated by ROS (Wink et al., 1999). On the other hand, NO does not react directly with thiols or other nucleophiles but requires activation with superoxide to generate RNS. The RNS species then cause nitrosative and oxidative stress (Wink and Mitchell, 1998).

The variety of functions achieved by NO can be understood if one looks at certain chemical concepts. NO and NO₂ are lipophilic and thus can migrate through cells, thus widening potential target profiles. ONOO-, a RNS, reacts rapidly with CO₂ that shortens its half life to less than 10 ms. The anionic form and short half life limits its mobility across membranes. When NO levels are higher than superoxide levels, the CO₂-OONO–intermediate is converted to NO₂ and N₂O₃ and changes the redox profile from an oxidative to a nitrosative microenvironment. The interaction of NO and ROS determines the bioavaiolability of NO and proximity of RNS generation to superoxide source, thus defining a reaction profile. The ROS also consumes NO to generate NO₂ and N₂O₃ as well as nitrite in certain locations. The combination of these reactions in different micro-environments provides a vast repertoire of reaction profiles for NO/RNS and ROS entities.

The Phagosome 'cauldron'

The phagosome provides an 'isolated' environment for the cell to carry out foreign body 'destruction'. ROS, NO and RNS interact to bring about redox reactions. The concentration of NO in a phagosome can depend on the kind of NOS in the vicinity and its activity and other localised cellular factors. NO and is metabolites such as nitrites and nitrates along with ROS combine forces to kill pathogens in the acidic environment of the phagosome as depicted in the figure 2 below.

Fig 2. The NO chemistry of the phagosome. (image credit: (Wink et al., 2011)

This diagram depicts the different nitrogen oxide and ROS chemistry that can occur within the phagosome to fight pathogens. The presence of NOX2 in the phagosomes serves two purposes: one is to focus the nitrite accumulation through scavenging mechanisms, and the second provides peroxide as a source of ROS or FA generation. The nitrite (NO₂−) formed in the acidic environment provides nitrosative stress with NO/NO₂/N₂O₃. The combined acidic nature and the ability to form multiple RNS and ROS within the acidic environment of the phagosome provide the immune response with multiple chemical options with which it can combat bacteria.

Bacteria

There are various ways in which NO combines forces with other molecules to brig about bacterial killing. Here are few examples

E.coli: It appears to be resistant to individual action of NO/RNS and H₂O₂ /ROS. However, when combined together, H₂O₂ plus NO mediate a dramatic, three-log increase in cytotoxicity, as opposed to 50% killing by NO alone or H₂O₂ alone. This indicates that these bacteria are highly susceptible to their synergistic action.

Staphylococcus: The combined presence of NO and peroxide in staphylococcal infections imparts protective effect. However, when these bacteria are first exposed to peroxide and then to NO there is increased toxicity. Hence a sequential exposure to superoxide/ROS and then NO is a potent tool in eradicating staphylococcal bacteria.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis: These bacterium are sensitive to NO and RNS, but in this case, NO₂ is the toxic species. A phagosome microenvironment consisting of ROS combined with acidic nitrite generates NO₂/N₂O₃/NO, which is essential for pathogen eradication by the alveolar macrophage. Overall, NO has a dual function; it participates directly in killing an organism, and/or it disarms a pathway used by that organism to elude other immune 

responses.

Parasites

Many human parasites have demonstrated the initiation of the immune response via the induction of iNOS, that then leads to expulsion of the parasite. The parasites include Plasmodia (malaria), Leishmania (leishmaniasis), and Toxoplasma (toxoplasmosis). Severe cases of malaria have been related with increased production of NO. High levels of NO production are however protective in these cases as NO was shown to kill the parasites (Rockett et al., 1991; Gyan et al., 1994). Leishmania is an intracellualr parasite that resides in the mamalian macrophages. NO upregulation via iNOS induction is the primary pathway involved in containing its infestation. A critical aspect of NO metabolism is that NOHA inhibits AG activity, thereby limiting the growth of parasites and bacteria including Leishmania, Trypanosoma, Schistosoma, Helicobacter, Mycobacterium, and Salmonella, and is distinct from the effects of RNS. Toxoplasma gondii is also an intracellular parasite that elicits NO mediated response. INOS knockout mice have shown more severe inflammatory lesions in the CNS that their wild type counterparts, in response to toxoplasma exposure. This indicates the CNS preventative role of iNOS in toxoplasmosis (Silva et al., 2009).

Virus

Viral replication can be checked by increased production of NO by induction of iNOS (HIV-1, coxsackievirus, influenza A and B, rhino virus, CMV, vaccinia virus, ectromelia virus, human herpesvirus-1, and human parainfluenza virus type 3) (Xu et al., 2006). NO can reduce viral load, reduce latency and reduce viral replication. One of the main mechanisms as to how NO participates in viral eradication involves the nitrosation of critical cysteines within key proteins required for viral infection, transcription, and maturation stages. For example, viral proteases or even the host caspases that contain cysteines in their active site are involved in the maturation of the virus. The nitrosative stress environment produced by iNOS may serve to protect against some viruses by inhibiting viral infectivity, replication, and maturation.

To be continued in part 2 ...

Bibliography

Gyan, B., Troye-Blomberg, M., Perlmann, P., Björkman, A., 1994. Human monocytes cultured with and without interferon-gamma inhibit Plasmodium falciparum parasite growth in vitro via secretion of reactive nitrogen intermediates. Parasite Immunol. 16, 371–3

Hibbs, J.B., Jr, Taintor, R.R., Vavrin, Z., 1987. Macrophage cytotoxicity: role for L-arginine deiminase and imino nitrogen oxidation to nitrite. Science 235, 473–476.

Hibbs, J.B., Jr, Taintor, R.R., Vavrin, Z., Rachlin, E.M., 1988. Nitric oxide: a cytotoxic activated macrophage effector molecule. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 157, 87–94.

Hibbs, J.B., Jr, Westenfelder, C., Taintor, R., Vavrin, Z., Kablitz, C., Baranowski, R.L., Ward, J.H., Menlove, R.L., McMurry, M.P., Kushner, J.P., 1992. Evidence for cytokine-inducible nitric oxide synthesis from L-arginine in patients receiving interleu

Rockett, K.A., Awburn, M.M., Cowden, W.B., Clark, I.A., 1991. Killing of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro by nitric oxide derivatives. Infect Immun 59, 3280–3283.

Stuehr, D.J., Nathan, C.F., 1989. Nitric oxide. A macrophage product responsible for cytostasis and respiratory inhibition in tumor target cells. J. Exp. Med. 169, 1543–1555.

Wink, D.A., Hines, H.B., Cheng, R.Y.S., Switzer, C.H., Flores-Santana, W., Vitek, M.P., Ridnour, L.A., Colton, C.A., 2011. Nitric oxide and redox mechanisms in the immune response. J Leukoc Biol 89, 873–891.

Wink, D.A., Mitchell, J.B., 1998. Chemical biology of nitric oxide: Insights into regulatory, cytotoxic, and cytoprotective mechanisms of nitric oxide. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 25, 434–456.

Wink, D.A., Vodovotz, Y., Grisham, M.B., DeGraff, W., Cook, J.C., Pacelli, R., Krishna, M., Mitchell, J.B., 1999. Antioxidant effects of nitric oxide. Meth. Enzymol. 301, 413–424.

Xu, W., Zheng, S., Dweik, R.A., Erzurum, S.C., 2006. Role of epithelial nitric oxide in airway viral infection. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 41, 19–28.

Yim, C.Y., McGregor, J.R., Kwon, O.D., Bastian, N.R., Rees, M., Mori, M., Hibbs, J.B., Jr, Samlowski, W.E., 1995. Nitric oxide synthesis contributes to IL-2-induced antitumor responses against intraperitoneal Meth A tumor. J. Immunol. 155, 4382–4390.

Discovery of nitric oxide and its role in vascular biology

Curated/reported by : Aviral Vatsa PhD, MBBS

Based on : S Moncada et al

It was in 1980 that Furchgott & Zawadzki first described endothelium- dependent relaxation of the blood vessels by acetylcholine. Further studies in 1984 revealed that other factors such as bradykinin, histamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine release endothelium derived relaxing factor (EDRF), which can modulate vessel tone. EDRF was shown to stimulate soluble guanylate cyclase and was inhibited by haemoglobin. In 1986 it was demonstrated that superoxide (O₂^-) anions mediated EDRF inactivation and that the inhibitors of EDRF generated superoxide (O₂^-) anions in solution as a mean to inhibit EDRF. It was later established that all compounds that inhibit EDRF have one property in common, redox activity, which accounted for their inhibitory action on EDRF. One exception was haemoglobin, which inactivates EDRF by binding to it. In 1987 Furchgott proposed that EDRF might be nitric oxide (NO) based on a study of the transient relaxations of endothelium-denuded rings of rabbit aorta to ‘acidified’ inorganic nitrite (NO^-) solutions and the observations that superoxide dismutase (SOD, which removes O₂^-) protected EDRF. Till then NO was not known to be produced in mammalian cells. In 1988 Palmer et al could detect NO production both biologically and chemically by chemiluminescence. The following year in 1989 the enzyme responsible for NO production, NO synthase, was discovered and L-arginine:NO pathway was proposed.

Roles of L-arginine:NO pathway :

By 1987 it was proposed that NO is generated in tissues other than endothelium. Hibs et al and Marletta et al proposed that NO was generated by macrophages. Moreover release of EDRF was demonstrated in cerebellar cells following activation with N-methyl-D- aspartate (NMDA ). Both noradrenergic and cholinergic responses are ‘controlled’ by the nitrergic system so that the release of NO (e.g., during electrical field stimulation) counteracts and dominates the response to the noradrenergic or cholinergic stimulus (Cellek & Moncada, 1997). Mechanism of penile erection was unveiled by the studies on nitrergic neurotransmission that led to therapeutic intervention. Selective damage of nitrergic nerves in disease states was proposed as a potent mechanism of pathophysiology. Broadly three areas of research based on three isoforms of NOS came into being; cardiovascular, nervous and immunology. Identification of N^G-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA) as an inhibitor of the synthesis of NO lay the basis of future research into investigating the role of NO in biological systems. In 1989 it was demonstrated that intravenous infusion of L-NMMA resulted in increase in blood pressure that was reversible by infusing L-arginine. NO was thus implicated in constantly maintaining blood vessel tone. eNOS knockout studies showed a hypertensive phenotypes in the animal models and over expression of eNOS led to lowering of the blood pressure. Furthermore, eNOS activation was attributed to phosphorylation of a specific tyrosine residue in the enzyme.

NO and mitochondria: (detailed here)

NO reacts with some of the complexes of the respiratory chain, and inhibits mitochondrial respiration- this is a well accepted notion. Initially it was believed that the target for NO was soluble guanylate cyclase, which in vasculature would lead to elevation of cGMP that eventually results in NO mediated vasodilatation and platelet aggregation inhibition. In 1994, another potential target, cytochrome c oxidase, for inhibitory effects of NO was discovered. This was a reversible effect, in competition with oxygen concentrations. Increases in NO production were also shown to inhibit cellular respiration irreversibly by selectively inhibiting complex I . Hence in 2002 it was proposed that this might be a mechanism through which cell pathology was initiated in certain conditions. Furthermore, NO was proposed to be implicated in the activation of the grp78-dependent stress response , via modulating calcium -related interaction between mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum . This host defence mechanism might also have role in vasculature. Further evidence was provided in 2003 to link the role of NO in mitochondrogenesis and thus indicating that NO might be involved in the regulation of the balance between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation in cells.

NO and pathophysiology :

Lack of NO: By 2000, NO was established as a haemostatic regulator in the vasculature. Its absence was implicated in pathological states such as hypertension and vasospasm. These pathophysiological states share a common beginning of endothelial dysfunction, which has low NO production as one of its characterstic features. This dysfunction has been observed prior to the appearance of cardiovascular disease in predisposed subjects with family history of essential hypertension and atherosclerosis. The most likely mechanism for endothelial dysfunction is that of a reduced bioavailability of NO . The mechanism of this aspect is discussed elsewhere on this site. Protection against reduction of NO bio-availability in the vasculature is a vital therapeutic target and is extensively explored. This can be achieved by the use of antioxidants and/or augmentation of eNOS expression. In 2003 statins were shown to increase the production of endothelial NO in endothelial cell cultures and in animals by the reduction of oxidative stress or by increasing the coupling of the eNOS. It was way back in 1994 that oestrogen was shown to increase both the activity and expression of eNOS. In addition, more recently in 2003, oestrogen was shown to reduce the breakdown of available NO.

Excess of NO: In 2000 it was shown that NO produced from iNOS in vasculature is involved in extensive vasodilatation in septic shock. Later it was demonstrated that inhibition of mitochondrial respiration is an important component of the NO-induced tissue damage. This inhibition of respiration, which is initially NO-dependent and reversible, becomes persistent with time as a result of oxidative stress . Such metabolic hypoxic states where in tissues cannot utilise available oxygen due to NO, could also could also contribute to other inflammatory and degenerative conditions. An obvious therapeutic target for reducing NO production in such conditions would be L-NMMA. L-NMM was tested in a clinical trial for septic shock in 2004. The results were however disappointing probably due to the blanket reduction in NO production from other NOS enzymes there by having deleterious effects on the treatment group. More specific inhibitors for NOS forms are being investigated for in different disease states.

In conclusion, the L-arginine: NO pathway has had a major impact in many areas of research, specially vascular biology. A lot has been understood about this pathway and its interactions, therapeutic targets are being aggressively investigated, but further investigations are required to delineate further the role of NO in human health and disease.

Further reading

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1760731/?tool=pubmed

Nitric Oxide and Platelet Aggregation

Inhaled NO in Pulmonary Artery Hypertension and Right Sided Heart Failure

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and the Role of agent alternatives in endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) Activation and Nitric Oxide Production

Nitric Oxide in bone metabolism

Nitric oxide and signalling pathways

Rationale of NO use in hypertension and heart failure

Interaction of Nitric Oxide and Prostacyclin in Vascular Endothelium

Nitric Oxide has a ubiquitous role in the regulation of glycolysis -with a concomitant influence on mitochondrial function

Nitric oxide: role in Cardiovascular health and disease

Authour/Curator: Aviral Vatsa PhD MBBS

This post is in continuation with posts on basics of NO metabolism and its effect on physiology. Other topics are covered under the following posts.

1. Nitric Oxide and Platelet Aggregation

2. Inhaled NO in Pulmonary Artery Hypertension and Right Sided Heart Failure

3. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and the Role of agent alternatives in endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) Activation and Nitric Oxide Production

4. Nitric Oxide in bone metabolism

5. Nitric oxide and signalling pathways

6. Rationale of NO use in hypertension and heart failure

Nitric oxide plays wide variety of roles in cardiovascular system and acts as a central point for signal transduction pathway in endothelium. NO modulates vascular tone, fibrinolysis, blood pressure and proliferation of vascular smooth muscles. In cardiovascular system disruption of NO pathways or alterations in NO production can result in preponderance to hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis and thrombosis. The three enzyme isoforms of NO synthase family are responsible for generating NO in different tissues under various circumstances. The endothelial NOS (eNOS) is expressed in endothelial cells, the inducible NOS (iNOS) is expressed in macrophages and neuronal NOS (nNOS) is expressed in certain neurons and skeletal muscle. Although the basic mechanism of action for NO production is the same for all three NOS isoforms, yet deficiencies of each one of them manifest differently or with varying severity in the body e.g. eNOS deficiency might lead to hypertension, more severe form of vascular injury to cerebral ischaemia and more severe form of atherosclerosis induced by hypercholesterolemic diet whereas nNOS deficiency might show less severe form of vascular injury to cerebral ischaemia and absence of iNOS might lead to reduced hypotension in septic shock.

Reduction in NO production is implicated as one of the initial factors in initiating endothelial dysfunction. This reduction could be due to

• reduction in eNOS production

• reduction in eNOS enzymatic activity

• reduced bioavailability of NO

eNOS production is increased by physiological sheer stress on endothelial cells resulting from normal flow of blood along the arterial walls. Alterations in fluid sheer stress patterns e.g due to arterial constriction has been shown to have detrimental effect on eNOS production in endothelial cells. eNOS production is decreased by LDL, angiotensin II and TNF alpha. eNOS is tightly coupled enzyme and its activity can be significantly reduced by reduction in availability of cofactors and substrates, and by competitive inhibitors such as ADMA. Furthermore, uncoupling of eNOS can result in increased production of reactive species of both oxygen (superoxide) and nitrogen (peroxinitrite), which inturn can further reduce eNOS bioavailability. A range of therapeutic targets aim at increasing bioavailability of eNOS and they are summarised here.

Increased production of ROS and peroxinitrite is associated with endothelial dysfunction. Coronary heart disease risk factors may increase NOS mediated ROS formation and peroxinitrite formation. Such risk factors are associated with decreased NO production levels in the vasculature. However, recent data suggests that reduction in bioavailable NO levels in the arteries could be due to increased local oxidative stress rather than reduction in basal NO production.

Oxidation dependent mechanisms have been implicated in endothelial dysfunction. Oxidized low density lipo-proteins (oxLDL) play an important role in early endothelial dysfunction and hence early atherosclerosis (see figure below)

oxLDL can uncouple eNOS and reduced uptake of L-ariginine that can lead to production of superoxide radical oxygen. OxLDL can interfere with NO production and lead to altered NO signalling in the vascular endothelium. In addition, different arteries can be affected differently by these physiological changes e.g. oxLDL affects carotid artery and not the basilar artery thereby implying that intracranial arteries might be protected from endothelium-mediated oxidative injury and hence atherosclerosis. And finally NO can modulate oxidation mediated apoptotic signals in the vessel wall. Hence atherosclerosis can result from the derangement of fine imbalance between NO bioavailability and local oxidative stress.

Therapeutic targets:

There are various pathways being targeted to modulate the bioavailability of eNOS and NO such as

1. Recoupling of eNOS to cofactors and substrates

2. Modulation of eNOS activity by genomic and non genomic mechanisms e.g. by statins, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers, calcium channel blockers , KLF2 modulators

3. The suppression of inflammatory signalling pathways by PPAR-α activation

4. Modulation of caeviolin mediated endocytosis and thus dissociation of eNOS from caevolin

The above list is not exhaustive, but this post here summarises recent developments in therapeutic targets in NO /eNOS regulation.

Based on:

Nitric Oxide and Pathogenic Mechanisms Involved in the Development of Vascular Diseases

Claudio Napoli and Louis J. Ignarro

Arch Pharm Res Vol 32, No 8, 1103-1108, 2009 , DOI 10.1007/s12272-009-1801-1 

Nitric Oxide Signalling Pathways

Curator/ Author: Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS

In continuation with the previous posts that dealt with short history and chemistry of nitric oxide (NO), here I will try to highlight the pathways involved in NO chemical signalling.

NO is a very small molecule, with a short half life (<5 sec). It diffuses rapidly to its surroundings and is metabolised to nitrites and nitrates. It can travel short distances, a few micrometers, before it is oxidised. Although it was previously believed that NO can only exert its effect for a very short time as other nitrogen oxides were believed to be biologically inert. Recent data suggests that other NO containing compounds such as S- or N-nitrosoproteins and iron-nitrosyl complexes can be reduced back to produce NO. These NO containing compounds can serve as storage and can reach distant tissues via blood circulation, remote from their place of origin. Hence NO can have both paracrine and 'endocrine' effects.

Intracellularly the oxidants present in the cytosol determine the amount of bioacitivity that NO performs. NO can travel roughly 100 microns from NOS enzymes where it is produced. NOS enzymes on the other hand are localised to specific sub-cellular areas, which have relevant proteins in the vicinity as targets for signalling.

NO signalling occurs primarily via three mechanisms (according to Martínez-Ruiz et al):

1. Classical: This occurs via soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC). Once NO is produced by NOS it diffuses to sGC intracellularly or even in other cells. SGC is highly sensitive for NO, even nanomolar amounts of NO activates sGC, thus making it a potent target for NO in signalling pathways. sGC in turn increases the conversion of GTP to cGMP. cGMP further mediates the regulation of contractile proteins and gene expression pathways via cGMP-activated protein kinases (PKGs). cGMPs cause confirmational changes in PKGs. Signalling by cGMP is terminated by the action of phosphodiestrases (PDEs). PDEs have become major therapeutic targets in the upcoming exciting research projects.
2. Less classical: Within the mitochondria NO can compete with O₂ and inhibit cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) enzyme. This is a reversible inhibition that depends on O₂and NO concentrations and can occur at physiological levels of NO. Various studies have demonstrated that endogenously generated NO can inhibit respiration or that NOS inhibitors can increase respiration at cellular, tissue or whole animal level. Although the exact mechanism of CcO inhibition of NO is still debated, NO-CcO interaction is considered important signalling step in a variety of functions such as inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Interestingly, at higher concentration (~1nM) NO can cause irreversible inhibition of cellular oxidation by reversible and/or irreversible damage to the mitochondrial iron–sulfur centers,In addition to the above mentioned pathways, NO (along with AMP, ROS and O2), can also activate AMP- activated protein kinase (AMPK), an enzyme that plays a central role in regulating intracellular energy metabolism. NO can also regulate hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), an O2-dependent transcription factor that plays a key role in cell adaptation to hypoxia .
3. Non- classical: S-nitrosylation or S-nitrosation is the covalent insertion of NO into thiol groups such as of cysteine residues of proteins. It is precise, reversible, and spatiotemporally restricted post translational modification. This chemical activity is dependent upon the reactivity between nitrosylating agent (a small molecule) and the target (protein residue). It might appear that this generic interaction results in non-specific, wide spread chemical activity with various proteins. However, three factors might determine the regulation of specificity of s-nitrosylation for signalling purposes:

• Subcellular compartmentalisation: high concentrations of nitrosylating agents are required in the vicinity of target residues, thus making it a specific activity.
• Site specificity: certain cysteine residues are more reactive in specific protein microenvironments than others, thus favouring their modification. As a result under physiological conditions only a specific number of cysteine residues would be modified, but under higher NO levels even the slow reacting ones would be modified. Increased impetus in research in this area to determine protein specificity to s-nitrosylation provides huge potential in discovering new therapeutic targets.
• Denitrosylation: different rates of denitrosylation result in s-nitrosylation specificity.

Other modifications in non classical NO mechanisms include S-glutathionylation and tyrosine nitration

Peroxynitrite: It is one of the important reactive nitrogen species that has immense biological relevance. NO reacts with superoxide to form peroxynitrite. Production of peroxynitrite depletes the bioactivty of NO in physiological systems. Peroxynitrite can diffuse through membranes and react with cellular components such as mitochondrial proteins, DNA, lipids, thiols, and amino acid residues. Peroxynitrite can modify proteins such as haemoglobin, myoglobin and cytochrome c. it can alter calcium homeostasis and promote mitochondrial signalling of cell death. However, NO itself in low concentrations have protective action on mitochondrial signalling of cell death.

More details about various aspects of NO signalling can be obtained from the following references.

The post is based on the following Sources:

1. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089158491100236X

   http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2011.04.010

2. http://content.karger.com/produktedb/produkte.asp?doi=338150

   Cardiology 2012;122:55-68 (DOI: 10.1159/000338150)

3. http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleid=1137266

    J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47(3):580-581. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2005.11.016

4. http://goo.gl/y6oY3

 

In addition, other aspects of NO involvement in biological systems in humans are covered in the following posts on this site:

1. Nitric Oxide and Platelet Aggregation
2. Inhaled NO in Pulmonary Artery Hypertension and Right Sided Heart Failure
3. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) and the Role of agent alternatives in endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) Activation and Nitric Oxide Production
4. Nitric Oxide in bone metabolism

Nitric Oxide production in Systemic sclerosis

Curator: Aviral Vatsa, PhD, MBBS

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a type of autoimmune disease when the body’s immune system attacks and destroys body’s healthy tissue. It is characterised by lesions in the vessels and accumulation of collagen in the tissues. Although the pathogenesis of this disease is not clear, but one of the suggestions is that the endothelium fails to produce NO upon cold stimulation. Physiologically, NO acts as a vasodilator and its deficiency has been implicated in diseases such as hypertension and atherosclerosis.

In the body NO is generated when L-arginine is converted to L-citruline in the presence of NO synthase (NOS) enzyme, molecular oxygen, NADPH, and other cofactors. Principally, three isoenzymes of NOS are present in the body to catalyse the production of NO in various anatomic locations and under various physiological conditions. Three distinct genes encode for the three types of NOS i.e. endothelial (eNOS or NOS-3), neuronal (nNOS or NOS-1), and inducible (iNOS or NOS-2) NOS.

The inducible type 2 NOS (iNOS) may act as an immunoregulator. Several reports have provided evidence for the existence of a NO pathway in human mononuclear cells.

It is not well established if NO production increases or decreases in SSc patients. In one study by Allanore et al, NO production was shown to be reduced in plasma and PBMC supernatants, and iNOS synthesis in PBMCs.

The authors of this study investigated NO metabolites in plasma and PBMC supernatants, and iNOS synthesis in PBMC to see if the level of NO production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) was low in SSc, as this might contribute to the vasodilatory abnormalities observed in this disease.

Eighteen patients with SSc were compared with two control groups: 16 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and 23 patients with mechanical sciatica.The NO metabolites nitrite and nitrates were determined by flurometeric and spectrometeric assays respectively. iNOS expression was determined by using monoclonal anti‐NOS2 antibody and FACS analyses.

The data suggested a decrease in plasma NO concentration and iNOS production in PBMC in patients with systemic sclerosis as compared with patients with rheumatoid arthritis and sciatica. Subgroup analysis showed no difference between limited and diffuse SSc forms. Total plasma nitrite concentrations in five healthy volunteers were similar to those in patients with sciatica, which is consistent with this group being an appropriate control group.

Thus the authors suggest that low NO production in Ssc patients might be involved in the tendency towards vasospam.

However in other studies authors have shown an increase in NO production in SSc patients. Takagi et al set out to investigate this discrepancy in NO production in SSc patients. They sought to determine whether increased NO levels are associated with various clinical subsets of SSc patients, and to assess the contribution of fibroblasts in skin lesions to NO synthesis.

In this study Takagi et al measured the levels of serum NO metabolites in SSc patients and determined the contribution of the excessive production of NO synthase (NOS)-2 by skin fibroblasts to NO synthesis. Serum NO levels of 45 patients with SSc were significantly higher than those of 20 healthy volunteers. In addition, some clinical features of SSc (the extent of skin fibrosis, short disease duration, and the complication of active fibrosing alveolitis) were all correlated positively with the levels of NO metabolites in SSc patients. RT PCR was used to determine NOS-2 mRNA expression levels in cultured fibroblasts derived from SSc patients.

The authors showed that serum NO levels were significantly elevated in patients with SSc as compared to healthy normal controls. They also demonstrated that NOS-2 was produced spontaneously by cultured SSc fibroblasts, suggesting that increased serum NO levels might reflect in part the elevated expression of NOS-2 by fibroblasts derived from SSc patients.

The discrepancy in NO production could be explained by disease stage, severity of tissue fibrosis and various circumstances of endothelial damage. Takagi et al found increased NO production in early stages of SSc with tissue fibrosis and not in later stages of the disease. Hence they suggest that NO levels may be a sensitive marker of the early stages of the development of severe tissue fibrosis in SSc patients, although a longitudinal and prospective study is needed to confirm this.

NO is known to have dual functions in the body, both beneficial and cyototoxic. Generally it depends upon the concentration and the duration of NO production. Similarily in SSC, the dual functions of NO seem to be both beneficial (as a vasodilator) and harmful (as a cytotoxic effector) in regard to the clinical manifestations of SSc. One of the limitations of these studies is that they did not investigate the absolute concentrations of NO production but only its metaoblites were measured. This might be due the fact that NO is a short-lived molecule (half-life < 5 s) and it is challenging to quantify NO production at single cell level. Such techniques (e.g.DAR 4M AM flurophore) have been developed but are challenging to apply to various experimental set ups. DAR 4M AM has been used to quantify NO production online in single cells. In SSc determination of absolute NO concentrations at cellular or tissue level at various stages of the disease process will go a long way in solving the discrepancy of NO production in SSc patients.

Sources

Low levels of nitric oxide (NO) in systemic sclerosis: inducible NO synthase production is decreased in cultured peripheral blood monocyte/macrophage cells. Y. Allanore, D. Borderie, P. Hilliquin, A. Hernvann, M. Levacher, H. Lemaréchal, O. G. Ekindjian, and A. Kahan. (2001) 40(10): 1089-1096 doi:10.1093/rheumatology/40.10.1089.

Serum nitric oxide (NO) levels in systemic sclerosis patients: correlation between NO levels and clinical features. K. Takagi, Y. Kawaguchi, M. Hara, T. Sugiura, M. Harigai, N. Kamatani . Article first published online: 24 NOV 2003. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2003.02320.x Clinical & Experimental Immunology: Volume 134, Issue 3, pages 538–544, December 2003

Extracellular NO signalling from a mechanically stimulated osteocyte. Aviral Vatsa, Theo H. Smit, Jenneke Klein-Nulend. Journal of biomechanics 1 January 2007 (volume 40 issue Pages S89-S95 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007.02.015)